The Adaptive Behavior Evaluation Scale (ABESMcCarney, 1983) and the Parent Rating of Student Behavior (PRSBMcCarney, 1988) are used to identify mental retardation, learning disabilities, behavior disorders, vision or hearing impairments, and physical disabilities in students ages 5 to 21. Commonly used tests of adaptive functioning are described below: Woodcock-Johnson Scales of Independent Behavior: This test measures independent behavior in children. The 1992 AAMR definition requires that an individual show significant limitations in at least 2 of the 10 adaptive skill areas. Very recently Greenspan (1999) proposed ideas for assessing vulnerability in a comprehensive assessment of adaptive behavior or social competence. The committee's review of the scientific and practice literature also reveals that adaptive behavior is a broadly focused construct. At the same time, it has been noted that use of adaptive behavior measures in the process of identifying children with mild mental retardation, especially, may be forgone in many schools because the academic failures or behavioral problems that prompt teacher referral of students, in and of themselves, may be considered valid indicators of limitations, deficits, or delays in adaptive behavior (McCullough & Rutenberg, 1988). An alternative explanation is that adaptive behavior must be understood in the context of the individual's relevant daily and social life, which is determined by age, culture, and context (Thompson et al., 1999). A third approach is to ask individuals with mild mental retardation to select the best strategy for resolving a social problem from among several alternatives. This use may result from concerns among clinicians about the robustness of adaptive behavior measures. Also, English language norms may be lower than the typical performance of a same-age child in another culture. In their review of child assessment practices of psychologists, Kamphaus et al. Rather than weighing the likely outcomes of enacting a particular strategy in a given situation, these individuals tend to render global judgments (e.g., whether a strategy is generally a good thing or bad thing to do) when evaluating behavioral options. In addition, there is a strong need to fund studies examining the nature and distribution of adaptive behavior deficits among individuals with mental retardation in general and those with mild mental retardation more specifically. As the importance of adaptive behavior measures in classification of mental retardation has increased, this concern has been heightened as disproportionate numbers of minority children have been identified as having mental retardation, primarily because of low-income status and the overrepresentation of individuals with mental retardation among low-income people (Boyle et al., 1996). (1991) found that two adaptive behavior scales ranked 20th and 21st among 29 specific psychological assessment measures used by psychologists serving adolescents, and they were used frequently by fewer than 10 percent of practitioners. ABLE Adaptive Behavior Skills Checklist Adaptive behavior is a developmentally determined set of coping skills. These limitations in adaptive skills are operationally defined as limitations in two or more of ten applicable adaptive skill areas (e.g. The determination of whether adaptive deficits are marked in character requires clinical interpretation informed in part by the data provided by the scoring of adaptive behavior measures. For older adolescents, ages 18 to 21, the difficulty level of items often permits identification of either delayed or typical skills. These improvements notwithstanding, the complexity of balancing frequency and severity of problem behavior occurrence will continue to pose problems of score interpretation. However, this also means that most scales are structured in steps that permit sampling of typical developmental tasks at each age. Each request for ABT must include an assessment involving the use of a standardized assessment (for example, Verbal Behavior Milestones Assessment and Placement Program [VB-MAPP], the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scale [Vineland], the Autism Diagnostic Observation Schedule [ADOS], etc.). The following areas by age should be adopted by SSA: Current science also suggests that several measures of adaptive behavior tap into these domains. They can contribute to accurate and appropriate clinical diagnosis of concurrent conditions that may meet listing requirements for SSI and DI as an alternative to assessment of adaptive behavior. Conversely, adult scales would not need items on school-related behaviors (Kamphaus, 1987a). Possibly the most thoroughly researched and well understood instrument to assess both prosocial and problem behavior among children generally is the Achenbach Child Behavior Checklist (CBCsee Achenbach & Edelbrock, 1978). Use of a telephone is a common item on communication subdomains of many adaptive behavior inventories. For example, adaptive behavior is defined in terms of effectively coping with common life demands and the ability to meet the standards of personal independence for a particular age group with a specific sociocultural background. In addition to summarizing adaptive behavior status for the purposes of diagnosis and establishing SSI and DI eligibility, some adaptive behavior scales, such as the AAMR Adaptive Behavior Scales (both school and residential or community versions) and the Scales of Independent Behavior permit the recording of maladaptive behavior. Factor analysis results do not support the existence of more than one overall ABAS general factor. Therefore, the most common method of assessing adaptive behavior is through a third-party respondent, although many difficult measurement issues arise in such assessments. These data are presented in Chapter 5. Table 4-4 presents examples of questions that can guide examiners in eliciting information regarding the three social-cognitive processes reviewed here. Social skills: interpersonal skills . Behavior . This allows the rater to obtain a complete picture of the adaptive functioning of the person being assessed. Looking up a phone number is a relevant item for that subdomain. However, because several adaptive behavior scales contain maladaptive components, it is worth noting important challenges to reliable measurement. The CBC differentiates between internalizing (e.g., withdrawal, diminished interests, depressive affect) and externalizing (e.g., aggression against peers or adults, property destruction) behavior problems that may be consistent with a mental disorder (see also Borthwick-Duffy et al., 1997; Fidler et al., 2000; Hodapp et al., 1997). In other instances, scales may be constructed such that they are relevant to only certain age groups (e.g., the motor scale in the Vineland ABS), or different versions of the same scale may be used in different settings (e.g., school versus residential and community settings). The AAMR definition is accompanied by five major principles for the assessment and understanding of adaptive behavior: 1. The Adaptive Behavior Assessment System (ABAS-2) is a behavior rating scale that gives a complete assessment of adaptive skills across the lifespan (Harrison & Oakland, 2000). It also appears that community practitioners, aside from those associated with developmental disabilities clinics or centers or with community developmental disabilities services, may not be well versed in the use and interpretation of adaptive behavior measures or prepared to apply different measures in different situations for different purposes. The SIB provides norms from infancy to adulthood (40+ years), contains 14 adaptive behavior subscales that fall into four major clusters, and provides an additional full-scale broad independence score. Greenspan (1999) noted that a drawback to the factor analytic approach to determining the dimensional structure of adaptive behavior is that this statistical method cannot determine whether some domains do not make conceptual sense (i.e., items should not have been included on tests in the first place) or whether missing content domains should have been included. Scores on the revised version of this measure, the CTAB-R, are based on a standardization sample that includes four of five regions of the United States (Adams, 2000). A danger of accepting erroneous domains that are not truly distinct from one another (Thompson et al., 1999, p. 17) is that it can lead to the inconsistent application of eligibility criteria and unequal treatment across groups of people. The evaluation is done with the purpose of determining whether a person demonstrates sufficient capacity to function independently . However, the simplicity and lack of reliability or validity of many such procedures render them less useful than more complex measures administered professionally. Specifically, several roadblocks to meaningful ratings of maladaptive behavior were noted after publication of the original AAMD Adaptive Behavior Scales (ABS). Mastery assessments typically involve direct testing of a person with a set of tasks administered under standardized conditions that permit comparisons to norms or to absolute standards for performance. Chapter 4, The Role of Adaptive Behavior Assessment, Mental Retardation: Determining Eligibility for Social Security Benefits. The frequency of performance can be classified along a dimension from never to usually or always. The number of choice points varies by specific instrument or by the variation in the clinical interpretation of the assessor when a formal assessment instrument is not used. 2. Consequently, several features must be balanced. One of the key themes throughout the DSM-IV definition is the cultural aspect of adaptive behavior. The classroom form of the Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales (Sparrow & Cicchetti, 1985) does not include a section on maladaptive behavior, which also suggests that these authors viewed measures of problem behavior as irrelevant to diagnosis or eligibility. Measures of behavioral functioning or responsiveness of children younger than 36 months have not been strengths of many adaptive behavior measures. This means that within any one subscale of an adaptive behavior scale, for example, there may be only one or two items typical of performance for a 10-year-old. There are at least 200 published adaptive behavior instruments that have been used for diagnosis, research, program evaluation, administration, and individualized programming. Other scales permit someone to help the person answer questions that cannot be answered without assistance. Vineland-II forms aid in diagnosing and classifying intellectual and developmental disabilities (IDD, formerly known as mental retardation) and other disorders, such as autism spectrum disorders and developmental delays. (1996) put it, relatively immature, as opposed to deviant, social behavior has always been the central distinguishing feature of this disability (pp. Widaman and McGrew (1996) further argued that agreement on a common set of terms for domains of adaptive behavior (in contrast to the use of or as above) would contribute to a better consensus on the structure of adaptive behavior. To be able to know that, one must observe the behavior and explain how their behavior could change when given a negative or a positive outcome. In some definitions (Division 33 and AAMR), adaptive behavior is construed as distinct from intellectual functioning and of equal importance, while in other definitions it is considered a result of deficits in intellectual functioning. For example, an item may tap skills associated only with childhood (e.g., performing a specific activity or completing a task with adult assistance in an age-typical manner) or with adulthood (e.g., menstrual care for an adult or adolescent woman). The Vineland Adaptive Behavior Scales are undergoing revision, and a new edition should be available within one to two years. The definition also includes the notion that adaptive skills are affected by the presence of appropriate supports and with appropriate supports over a sustained period, the life functioning of the person with mental retardation will generally improve.. A more recent study by Watkins et al. Adaptive behaviors include real-life skills such as grooming, getting dressed, avoiding danger, safe food handling, following school rules, managing money, cleaning, and making friends. The World Health Organization (1996) also includes a definition of mental retardation in its International Classification of Diseases and Related Health Problems, Tenth Revision (ICD-10). Some of the more common and relevant response sets are (a) social desirability, involving responses consistent with positive or desirable connotations of the items or behaviors, (b) acquiescence, involving the tendency to say yes, true, or, in cases in which knowledge is lacking or uncertain, sometimes, and (c) halo effects, involving reporting higher adaptive behavior among persons who are more liked by the respondent. It can be a habit picked up at an early age or can be a behavior that starts after a major life change, illness, or traumatic event. Comprehensive, convenient, and cost-effective, this behavior rating scale . The primary use of adaptive behavior scales in the classification of mental retardation has frequently been confirmatory (i.e., to confirm that a low IQ is associated with delayed acquisition or manifestation of everyday personal and social competencies). These other bits of data could include a review of developmental and social history, direct observation of the individual's behavior, verbal reports from interviews, and the use of the other structured and semistructured interviews. Traditional measures of achievement and intellectual functioning are examples of maximum performance tests. Research studies in the past decade that employ adaptive behavior measures have used them as outcome measures or to study the structure or dimensions of adaptive behavior, rather than behavioral development. Deficits in adaptive behavior are defined as non-existent in an individual's effectiveness in meeting the standards of maturation, learning, personal independence, social responsibility and school performance. A relatively wide age range must be represented. Adult norming samples are often included as well, but they tend to consist of people with already identified disabilities. Generally, however, adaptive behavior measures will be less effective in fine-grained analysis and classification of such problems as specific motor disorders or communication disorders and deficiencies in concentration, persistence, or pace. The disadvantage is that each clinician imposes his or her own subjective criteria, a process that threatens both the reliability and the validity of the assessment. Norms on children having no disability are available from birth to 18 years, 11 months, based on a standardization sample of 3,000 cases that were stratified by age, gender, ethnicity, parental education, geographic region, and community size consistent with U.S. census data. His work emphasized social inadequacy due to low intelligence that was developmentally arrested as a cardinal indication of mental retardation (Doll, 1936a, p. 35). Thus, adaptive behavior scales have particular relevance in application with preschoolers and with teens, who are often participants in Supplemental Security Income (SSI) determinations or redeterminations. Standard score scales are preferred for these comparisons. SOURCE: Greenspan and Driscoll (1997).
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